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Looking for: my ideal man is someone who is loving ,respectful, easy going and young at heart. New York: Doubleday, p. Their strong spirit, loving and nurturing souls, their integrity, their ability to overcome great obstacle. Journal of Economic Perspectives. The whole situation, some say, is ripe for misinterpretation, confusion and, ultimately, exploitation. At this time, American society thought that Native American children needed to be acculturated to the zip society.

The Cherokee tribe had the most members who held black slaves, more than any other Native American nation. They were required to emancipate their slaves and grant them citizenship and membership in the respective tribes, as the United States freed slaves and granted them citizenship by amendments to the US Constitution. McCarthy, Civil Rights in Tribal Courts; The Indian Bill of Rights at 30 Years, 34 IDAHO LAW REVIEW 465 1998.

Indian Black Dating - This law stipulated a fine of 200 pounds for persons bringing a slave to the frontier regions.

Native Americans, also known as American Indians, Indians, Indigenous Americans and , are the of the. There are over 500 within the US, about half of which are associated with. The term excludes and some. Native Americans Total population American Indian and Alaska Native 2010 Census Bureau One race: 2,932,248 are registered In combination with one or more of the other races listed: 2,288,331 Total: 5,220,579 ~ 1. A vast variety of peoples, societies and cultures subsequently developed. Native Americans were greatly affected by the , which began in 1492, and their population declined precipitously due to introduced , and. After the founding of the United States, many Native American peoples were subjected to warfare, and , and they continued to suffer from into the 20th century. Since the 1960s, movements have resulted in changes to the lives of Native Americans, though there are still many. Today, there are over five million Native Americans in the United States. Since the end of the 15th century, the has led to centuries of population, cultural, and agricultural transfer and adjustment between and societies, a process known as the. As most Native American groups had historically preserved their histories by and artwork, the first written sources of the conflict were written by Europeans. At the time of the first contact, the indigenous cultures were quite different from those of the proto-industrial and mostly immigrants. Some Northeastern and Southwestern cultures, in particular, were and operated on a more collective basis than the Europeans were familiar with. The majority of Indigenous American tribes maintained their hunting grounds and agricultural lands for use of the entire tribe. Europeans at that time had cultures and had developed concepts of individual with respect to land that were extremely different. The differences in cultures between the established Native Americans and immigrant Europeans, as well as shifting alliances among different nations in times of war, caused extensive political tension, ethnic violence, and social disruption. Even before the European settlement of what is now the United States, Native Americans suffered high fatalities from , to which they had not yet acquired ; the diseases were endemic to the Spanish and other Europeans, and spread by direct contact and likely through pigs that escaped from expeditions. Old World diseases were the primary killer. In many regions, particularly the tropical lowlands, populations fell by 90 percent or more in the first century after the contact. Assimilation whether voluntary, as with the , or became a consistent policy through American administrations. During the 19th century, the ideology of became integral to the American nationalist movement. Expansion of European-American populations to the west after the American Revolution resulted in increasing pressure on Native American lands, warfare between the groups, and rising tensions. In 1830, the U. Congress passed the , authorizing the government to relocate Native Americans from their homelands within established states to lands west of the , accommodating European-American expansion. This resulted in the ethnic cleansing of many tribes, with the brutal, forced marches coming to be known as. As American expansion reached into the , settler and miner migrants came into increasing conflict with the , , and other Western tribes. These were complex cultures based on and seasonal hunting. They carried out resistance against United States incursion in the decades after the end of the and the completion of the in a series of , which were frequent up until the 1890s and continued into the 20th century. Over time, the United States forced a series of treaties and land cessions by the tribes and established for them in many western states. Indian agents encouraged Native Americans to adopt European-style farming and similar pursuits, but European-American agricultural technology of the time was inadequate for the often dry reservation lands, leading to mass starvation. In 1924, Native Americans who were not already U. Contemporary Native Americans have a unique relationship with the United States because they may be members of nations, tribes, or bands with and. Cultural activism since the late 1960s has increased political participation and led to an expansion of efforts to teach and preserve indigenous languages for younger generations and to establish a greater cultural infrastructure: Native Americans have founded independent newspapers and online media, recently including , the first Native American television channel; established programs, tribal schools, and , and museums and language programs; and have increasingly been published as authors in numerous genres. The terms used to refer to Native Americans. By comparison, the indigenous peoples of are generally known as. This map shows the approximate location of the ice-free corridor and specific Paleoindian sites. It is not definitively known how or when the Native Americans first and the present-day United States. The prevailing theory proposes that people migrated from across , a that connected to present-day during the , and then spread southward throughout the Americas over the subsequent generations. Genetic evidence suggests at least three waves of migrants arrived from Asia, with the first occurring at least 15 thousand years ago. These migrations may have begun as early as 30,000 years ago and continued through to about 10,000 years ago, when the land bridge became submerged by the caused by the ending of the. These early inhabitants, called , soon diversified into many hundreds of culturally distinct nations and tribes. The pre-Columbian era incorporates all in the before the appearance of significant European influences on the continents, spanning the time of the in the period to during the. While technically referring to the era before ' voyages of 1492 to 1504, in practice the term usually includes the history of until they were conquered or significantly influenced by Europeans, even if this happened decades or even centuries after Columbus' initial landing. The used are the classifications of archaeological periods and cultures established in and ' 1958 book Method and Theory in American Archaeology. They divided the archaeological record in the Americas into five phases; see. The , a hunting culture, is primarily identified by the use of fluted points. Artifacts from this culture were first excavated in 1932 near. The Clovis culture ranged over much of North America and also appeared in South America. The culture is identified by the distinctive , a flaked flint spear-point with a notched flute, by which it was inserted into a shaft. Dating of Clovis materials has been by association with animal bones and by the use of methods. Recent reexaminations of Clovis materials using improved carbon-dating methods produced results of 11,050 and 10,800 radiocarbon years roughly 9100 to 8850 BCE. Numerous cultures occupied North America, with some arrayed around the and of the modern and , as well as adjacent areas to the West and Southwest. According to the oral histories of many of the indigenous peoples of the Americas, they have been living on this continent since their genesis, described by a wide range of traditional. Other tribes have stories that recount migrations across long tracts of land and a great river, believed to be the. Genetic and linguistic data connect the indigenous people of this continent with ancient northeast Asians. Archeological and linguistic data has enabled scholars to discover some of the migrations within the Americas. A for a spear The was characterized by the use of as projectile tips and activities known from kill sites, where slaughter and butchering of took place. Folsom tools were left behind between 9000 BCE and 8000 BCE. Linguists, anthropologists, and archaeologists believe their ancestors comprised a separate migration into North America, later than the first Paleo-Indians. They migrated into Alaska and northern Canada, south along the Pacific Coast, into the interior of Canada, and south to the Great Plains and the American Southwest. They constructed large multi-family dwellings in their villages, which were used seasonally. People did not live there year-round, but for the summer to hunt and fish, and to gather food supplies for the winter. The people lived from 5500 BCE to 600 CE. They were part of the centered in north-central , the , the Valley, southern , and southeastern. Since the 1990s, archeologists have explored and dated eleven Middle sites in present-day Louisiana and Florida at which early cultures built complexes with multiple ; they were societies of hunter-gatherers rather than the settled agriculturalists believed necessary according to the theory of to sustain such large villages over long periods. The prime example is in northern Louisiana, whose 11-mound complex is dated to 3500 BCE, making it the oldest, dated site in North America for such complex construction. Construction of the mounds went on for 500 years until the site was abandoned about 2800 BCE, probably due to changing environmental conditions. The culture thrived from 2200 BCE to 700 BCE, during the Late Archaic period. Evidence of this culture has been found at more than 100 sites, from the major complex at a across a 100-mile 160 km range to the near. The K'alyaan of the Kiks. Poverty Point is a 1 square mile 2. Artifacts show the people traded with other Native Americans located from Georgia to the Great Lakes region. This is one among numerous mound sites of complex indigenous cultures throughout the Mississippi and Ohio valleys. They were one of several succeeding cultures often referred to as. The of cultures refers to the time period from roughly 1000 BCE to 1000 CE in the eastern part of North America. The is the term for the common aspects of the Native American culture that flourished along rivers in the northeastern and midwestern from 200 BCE to 500 CE. The were of many nations and tribal affiliations, each with distinctive cultural and political identities, but they shared certain beliefs, traditions, and practices, such as the centrality of as a resource and spiritual symbol. Their gift-giving feast, , is a highly complex event where people gather in order to commemorate special events. These events include the raising of a or the appointment or election of a new chief. The most famous artistic feature of the culture is the Totem pole, with carvings of animals and other characters to commemorate cultural beliefs, legends, and notable events. The Hopewell tradition was not a single or society, but a widely dispersed set of related populations, who were connected by a common network of trade routes, known as the Hopewell Exchange System. At its greatest extent, the Hopewell exchange system ran from the Southeastern into the southeastern shores of. Within this area, societies participated in a high degree of exchange; most activities were conducted along the waterways that served as their major transportation routes. The Hopewell exchange system traded materials from all over the United States. The period is marked by the increased use of flat-topped arranged around central plazas, more complex political institutions, and a subsistence strategy still grounded in the and hunting rather than on the plant as would happen in the succeeding period. The culture was originally defined by the unique decoration on -tempered ceramic ware by after his investigations at the. He had studied both the Mazique and Coles Creek Sites, and almost went with the Mazique culture, but decided on the less historically involved sites name. It is ancestral to the. The early Hohokam founded a series of small villages along the middle. They raised corn, squash and beans. The communities were located near good arable land, with common in the earlier years of this period. They were known for their pottery, using the paddle-and-anvil technique. The Classical period of the culture saw the rise in architecture and ceramics. Buildings were grouped into walled compounds, as well as earthen platform mounds. Platform mounds were built along river as well as irrigation canal systems, suggesting these sites were administrative centers allocating water and coordinating canal labor. Polychrome pottery appeared, and inhumation burial replaced cremation. Trade included shells and other exotics. Social and climatic factors led to a decline and abandonment of the area after 1400 CE. It is believed that the Ancestral Puebloans developed, at least in part, from the , who developed from the. They lived in a range of structures that included small family pit houses, larger clan type structures, grand , and cliff sited dwellings. The Ancestral Puebloans possessed a complex network that stretched across the linking hundreds of communities and population centers. The culture is perhaps best known for the stone and earth dwellings built along cliff walls, particularly during the and eras. Engraved stone from Moundville, illustrating two , perhaps referring to of the. The 6 square miles 16 km 2 city complex was based on the culture's cosmology; it included more than 100 mounds, positioned to support their knowledge of , and built with knowledge of varying soil types. The society began building at this site about 950 CE, and reached its peak population in 1,250 CE of 20,000—30,000 people, which was not equalled by any city in the present-day United States until after 1800. Kincaid Mounds has been notable for both its significant role in native and for the central role the site has played in the development of modern. The site had at least 11 substructure ranking fifth for mound-culture pyramids. Artifacts from the settlement link its major habitation and the construction of the mounds to the Mississippian period, but it was also occupied earlier during the. The rise of the complex culture was based on the people's adoption of agriculture, development of greater population densities, and -level complex social organization from 1200 CE to 1650 CE. Most scholars reject suggestions that the Iroquois model made a major contribution to the creation of the new United States government. A few colonists did glance at Iroquois practices but none of them were adopted. The Iroquois system of affiliation was a kind of federation, quite unlike the strong, centralized European monarchies. The and had nine seats each; the held fourteen; the had ten seats; and the had eight. Representation was not based on population numbers, as the Seneca tribe greatly outnumbered the others. When a sachem chief died, his successor was chosen by the senior woman of his tribe in consultation with other female members of the clan; property and hereditary leadership were passed. Decisions were not made through voting but through consensus decision making, with each sachem chief holding theoretical power. They occupied one side of a three-sided fire the Mohawk and Seneca sat on one side of the fire, the Oneida and Cayuga sat on the third side. For example, it is based on inherited rather than elected leadership, selected by female members of the tribes, consensus decision-making regardless of population size of the tribes, and a single group capable of bringing matters before the legislative body. The Iroquois invaded and attacked tribes in the Ohio River area of present-day Kentucky and claimed the hunting grounds. Historians have placed these events as occurring as early as the 13th century, or in the 17th century. Tribes originating in the Ohio Valley who moved west included the , , and. By the mid-17th century, they had resettled in their historical lands in present-day , , and. The Osage warred with -speaking Native Americans, displacing them in turn by the mid-18th century and dominating their new historical territories. European exploration and colonization Main article: From the 16th through the 19th centuries, the population of Indians sharply declined. Most mainstream scholars believe that, among the various contributing factors, was the overwhelming cause of the population decline of the Native Americans because of their lack of to new diseases brought from Europe. It is difficult to estimate the number of pre-Columbian Native Americans who were living in what is today the United States of America. Estimates range from a low of 2. By 1800, the Native population of the present-day United States had declined to approximately 600,000, and only 250,000 Native Americans remained in the 1890s. In the 100 years following the arrival of the Spanish to the Americas, large disease epidemics depopulated large parts of the eastern United States in the 16th century. There are a number of documented cases where diseases were deliberately spread among Native Americans as a form of. Blankets infected with smallpox were given to Native Americans. The effectiveness of the attempt is unclear. Native Americans ambushing , who are counterattacking. Andrew's diaries report that by 1640, a community had been founded which they named St. Maryland and the recently established school sent two boys to St. Omer who yielded in abilities to few Europeans, when competing for the honor of being first in their class. So that not gold, nor silver, nor the other products of the earth alone, but men also are gathered from thence to bring those regions, which foreigners have unjustly called ferocious, to a higher state of virtue and cultivation. During the war the Iroquois destroyed several large tribal confederacies, including the , , , , and , and became dominant in the region and enlarged their territory. In 1727, founded , which is currently the oldest continuously operating school for girls and the oldest Catholic school in the United States. From the time of its foundation, it offered the first classes for Native American girls, and would later offer classes for female African-American and. Those involved in the tended to forces against British colonial militias. The British had made fewer allies, but it was joined by some tribes that wanted to prove assimilation and loyalty in support of treaties to preserve their territories. They were often disappointed when such treaties were later overturned. The tribes had their own purposes, using their alliances with the European powers to battle traditional Native enemies. Some who were loyal to the British, and helped them fight in the , fled north into Canada. After European explorers reached the West Coast in the 1770s, smallpox rapidly killed at least 30% of Native Americans. For the next eighty to one hundred years, smallpox and other diseases devastated native populations in the region. Smallpox epidemics in and brought devastation and drastic depopulation among the. By 1832, the federal government established a program for Native Americans The Indian Vaccination Act of 1832. It was the first federal program created to address a health problem of Native Americans. Animal introductions With the meeting of two worlds, animals, insects, and plants were carried from one to the other, both deliberately and by chance, in what is called the. In the 16th century, Spaniards and other Europeans brought to Mexico. Some of the horses escaped and began to breed and increase their numbers in the wild. As Native Americans adopted use of the animals, they began to change their cultures in substantial ways, especially by extending their nomadic ranges for hunting. The reintroduction of the horse to North America had a profound impact on. The painting shows a Native American boy in a blue coat and woman in a red dress in European clothing. During the , the newly proclaimed United States competed with the British for the allegiance of Native American nations east of the. Most Native Americans who joined the struggle sided with the British, based both on their trading relationships and hopes that colonial defeat would result in a halt to further colonial expansion onto Native American land. The first native community to was the. In 1779 the was carried out during the American Revolutionary War against the British and the four allied nations of the Iroquois. The immediate objects are the total destruction and devastation of their settlements, and the capture of as many prisoners of every age and sex as possible. It will be essential to ruin their crops now in the ground and prevent their planting more. The British made peace with the Americans in the , through which they ceded vast Native American territories to the United States without informing or consulting with the Native Americans. The United States The United States was eager to expand, develop farming and settlements in new areas, and satisfy land hunger of settlers from New England and new immigrants. The national government initially sought to purchase Native American land by. The states and settlers were frequently at odds with this policy. United States policy toward Native Americans continued to evolve after the American Revolution. The of 1819 promoted this civilization policy by providing funding to societies mostly religious who worked on Native American improvement. During the , many natives were by incoming settlers as well as by militia units financed and organized by the California government. Some scholars contend that the state financing of these militias, as well as the US government's role in other massacres in California, such as the and , in which up to 400 or more natives were killed in each massacre, constitutes a campaign of against the. Westward expansion was the Shawnee leader of who attempted to organize an alliance of Native American tribes throughout North America. As American expansion continued, Native Americans resisted settlers' encroachment in several regions of the new nation and in unorganized territories , from the Northwest to the Southeast, and then in the West, as settlers encountered the tribes of the. East of the Mississippi River, an intertribal army led by , a Shawnee chief, fought a number of engagements in the Northwest during the period 1811—12, known as. During the , Tecumseh's forces allied themselves with the British. After Tecumseh's death, the British ceased to aid the Native Americans south and west of Upper Canada and American expansion proceeded with little resistance. Conflicts in the Southeast include the and , both before and after the of most members of the. In the 1830s, President Andrew Jackson signed the , a policy of relocating Indians from their homelands to and reservations in surrounding areas to open their lands for non-native settlements. This resulted in the. Mass grave for the dead Lakota following the 1890 , which took place during the in the 19th century In July 1845, the New York newspaper editor John L. Manifest Destiny had serious consequences for Native Americans, since continental expansion for the United States took place at the cost of their occupied land. The of 1851 set the precedent for modern-day Native American reservations through allocating funds to move western tribes onto reservations since there were no more lands available for relocation. Native American nations on the plains in the west continued armed conflicts with the U. Notable conflicts in this period include the , , and. Expressing the frontier anti-Indian sentiment, believed the Indians were destined to vanish under the pressure of white civilization, stating in an 1886 lecture: I don't go so far as to think that the only good Indians are dead Indians, but I believe nine out of ten are, and I shouldn't like to inquire too closely into the case of the tenth. The ritual, which the Lakota believed would reunite the living with spirits of the dead, cause the white invaders to vanish, and bring peace, prosperity, and unity to Indian peoples throughout the region Among the most notable events during the wars was the in 1890. In the years leading up to it the U. A ritual on the Northern Lakota reservation at Wounded Knee, , led to the U. Army's attempt to subdue the Lakota. The dance was part of a religious movement founded by the spiritual leader that told of the return of the Messiah to relieve the suffering of Native Americans and promised that if they would live righteous lives and perform the Ghost Dance properly, the European American colonists would vanish, the bison would return, and the living and the dead would be reunited in an Edenic world. On December 29 at Wounded Knee, gunfire erupted, and U. Civil War was a Union Civil War General who wrote the terms of surrender between the United States and the. Native Americans served in both the and military during the. At the outbreak of the war, for example, the minority party of the gave its allegiance to the Confederacy, while originally the majority party went for the North. Native Americans fought knowing they might jeopardize their independence, unique cultures, and ancestral lands if they ended up on the losing side of the Civil War. A few Native American tribes, such as the Creek and the Choctaw, were slaveholders and found a political and economic commonality with the Confederacy. The Choctaw owned over 2,000 slaves. Removals and reservations Further information: In the 19th century, the incessant incrementally compelled large numbers of Native Americans to resettle further west, often by force, almost always reluctantly. Native Americans believed this forced relocation illegal, given the of 1785. Under President , passed the of 1830, which authorized the President to conduct treaties to exchange Native American land east of the for lands west of the river. As many as 100,000 Native Americans relocated to the West as a result of this policy. In theory, relocation was supposed to be voluntary and many Native Americans did remain in the East. In practice, great pressure was put on Native American leaders to sign removal treaties. The most egregious violation, the , was the removal of the Cherokee by President Jackson to. The 1864 deportation of the by the U. Native Americans and U. Citizenship In 1817, the Cherokee became the first Native Americans recognized as U. Indian Appropriations Act of 1871 In 1871, Congress added a to the , signed into law by President , ending United States recognition of or independent nations, and prohibiting additional treaties. Education Main article: After the Indian wars in the late 19th century, the government established , initially run primarily by or affiliated with Christian missionaries. At this time, American society thought that Native American children needed to be acculturated to the general society. The boarding school experience was a total immersion in modern American society, but it could prove traumatic to children, who were forbidden to speak their. They were taught Christianity and not allowed to practice their native religions, and in numerous other ways forced to abandon their Native American identities. Before the 1930s, schools on the reservations provided no schooling beyond the sixth grade. To obtain more, boarding school was usually necessary. Small reservations with a few hundred people usually sent their children to nearby public schools. The Indian Division of the operated large-scale construction projects on the reservations, building thousands of new schools and community buildings. Under the leadership of the BIA brought in progressive educators to reshape Indian education. The Bureau of Indian Affairs BIA by 1938 taught 30,000 students in 377 boarding and day schools, or 40% of all Indian children in school. The Navajo largely opposed schooling of any sort, but the other tribes accepted the system. There were now high schools on larger reservations, educating not only teenagers but also an adult audience. There were no Indian facilities for higher education. They deemphasized textbooks, emphasized self-esteem, and started teaching Indian history. They promoted traditional arts and crafts of the sort that could be conducted on the reservations, such as making jewelry. The New Deal reformers met significant resistance from parents and teachers, and had mixed results. World War II brought younger Indians in contact with the broader society through military service and work in the munitions industries. The role of schooling was changed to focus on vocational education for jobs in urban America. Since the rise of self-determination for Native Americans, they have generally emphasized education of their children at schools near where they live. In addition, many have taken over operations of such schools and added programs of language retention and revival to strengthen their cultures. Beginning in the 1970s, tribes have also founded at their reservations, controlled, and operated by Native Americans, to educate their young for jobs as well as to pass on their cultures. On August 29, 1911, , generally considered to have been the last Native American to live most of his life without contact with culture, was discovered near. In 1919, the United States under President granted citizenship to all Native Americans who had served in World War I. Nearly 10,000 men had enlisted and served, a high number in relation to their population. Despite this, in many areas Native Americans faced local resistance when they tried to vote and were discriminated against with barriers to voter registration. On June 2, 1924, U. President signed the , which made all Native Americans born in the United States and its territories American citizens. Prior to passage of the act, nearly two-thirds of Native Americans were already U. After serving as a United States Representative and being repeatedly re-elected as United States Senator from Kansas, Curtis served as for 10 years and as for five years. He was very influential in the Senate. In 1928 he ran as the vice-presidential candidate with for president, and served from 1929 to 1933. He was the first person with significant Native American ancestry and the first person with acknowledged non-European ancestry to be elected to either of the highest offices in the land. American Indians today in the United States have all the rights guaranteed in the , can vote in elections, and run for political office. Controversies remain over how much the federal government has jurisdiction over tribal affairs, sovereignty, and cultural practices. Mid-century, the and the marked a new direction for assimilating Native Americans into. The census counted 332,000 Indians in 1930 and 334,000 in 1940, including those on and off reservations in the 48 states. World War II General meeting , , and other Native American troops Some 44,000 Native Americans served in the during : at the time, one-third of all able-bodied Indian men from eighteen to fifty years of age. Described as the first large-scale exodus of indigenous peoples from the since the removals of the 19th century, the men's service with the U. The overwhelming majority of Native Americans welcomed the opportunity to serve; they had a voluntary enlistment rate that was 40% higher than those drafted. Their fellow soldiers often held them in high esteem, in part since the legend of the tough Native American warrior had become a part of the fabric of American historical legend. The resulting increase in contact with the world outside of the reservation system brought profound changes to Native American culture. The most significant of these changes was the opportunity—as a result of wartime labor shortages—to find well-paying work in cities, and many people relocated to urban areas, particularly on the West Coast with the buildup of the defense industry. There were also losses as a result of the war. For instance, a total of 1,200 men served in World War II; only about half came home alive. In addition, many more served as for the military in the Pacific. The code they made, although very simple, was never cracked by the Japanese. Self-determination Main articles: and Military service and urban residency contributed to the rise of American Indian activism, particularly after the 1960s and the 1969—1971 by a student Indian group from. In the same period, the AIM was founded in , and chapters were established throughout the country, where American Indians combined spiritual and political activism. Political protests gained national media attention and the sympathy of the American public. Through the mid-1970s, conflicts between governments and Native Americans occasionally erupted into violence. A notable late 20th-century event was the on the. Upset with tribal government and the failures of the federal government to enforce treaty rights, about 300 and AIM activists took control of on February 27, 1973. Indian activists from around the country joined them at Pine Ridge, and the occupation became a symbol of rising American Indian identity and power. Federal law enforcement officials and the national guard cordoned off the town, and the two sides had a standoff for 71 days. During much gunfire, one was wounded and paralyzed. In late April, a Cherokee and local Lakota man were killed by gunfire; the Lakota elders ended the occupation to ensure no more lives were lost. In June 1975, two FBI agents seeking to make an armed robbery arrest at Pine Ridge Reservation were wounded in a firefight, and killed at close range. The AIM activist was sentenced in 1976 to two consecutive terms of life in prison in the FBI deaths. In 1968, the government enacted the. This gave tribal members most of the protections against abuses by tribal governments that the Bill of Rights accords to all U. In 1975, the U. It resulted from American Indian activism, the Civil Rights Movement, and community development aspects of President 's social programs of the 1960s. The Act recognized the right and need of Native Americans for self-determination. It marked the U. Tribes have developed organizations to administer their own social, welfare and housing programs, for instance. Tribal self-determination has created tension with respect to the federal government's historic trust obligation to care for Indians; however, the Bureau of Indian Affairs has never lived up to that responsibility. Tribal colleges Main article: Navajo Community College, now called , the first tribal college, was founded in Tsaile, Arizona, in 1968 and accredited in 1979. Tensions immediately arose between two philosophies: one that the tribal colleges should have the same criteria, curriculum and procedures for educational quality as mainstream colleges, the other that the faculty and curriculum should be closely adapted to the particular historical culture of the tribe. There was a great deal of turnover, exacerbated by very tight budgets. In 1994, the U. Congress passed legislation recognizing the tribal colleges as , which provided opportunities for large-scale funding. Thirty-two tribal colleges in the United States belong to the. By the early 21st century, tribal nations had also established numerous language revival programs in their schools. In addition, Native American activism has led major universities across the country to establish programs and departments, increasing awareness of the strengths of Indian cultures, providing opportunities for academics, and deepening research on history and cultures in the United States. Native Americans have entered academia; journalism and media; politics at local, state and federal levels; and public service, for instance, influencing medical research and policy to identify issues related to American Indians. It states that the U. This closed a gap which prevented arrest or prosecution by tribal police or courts of abusive partners of tribal members who were not native or from another tribe. Migration to urban areas continued to grow with 70% of Native Americans living in urban areas in 2012, up from 45% in 1970 and 8% in 1940. Urban areas with significant Native American populations include Minneapolis, Denver, Albuquerque, Phoenix, Tucson, Chicago, Oklahoma City, Houston, New York City, Los Angeles, and Rapid City. Many lived in poverty. Racism, unemployment, drugs and gangs were common problems which Indian social service organizations such as the Little Earth housing complex in Minneapolis attempted to address. Grassroots efforts to support urban Indigenous populations have also taken place, as in the case of in Los Angeles. Further information: Historical population The census counted 248,000 Indians in 1890, 332,000 in 1930 and 334,000 in 1940, including those on and off reservations in the 48 states. American Indian, Inuit, and Aleut % of Population by U. Self-identification dates from the census of 1960; prior to that the race of the respondent was determined by opinion of the census taker. The option to select more than one race was introduced in 2000. The 2010 Census showed that the U. Out of the total U. Together, these two groups totaled 5. Full-blood individuals are more likely to live on a reservation than mixed-blood individuals. The , with 286,000 full-blood individuals, is the largest tribe if only full-blood individuals are counted; the Navajo are the tribe with the highest proportion of full-blood individuals, 86. The have a different history; it is the largest tribe with 819,000 individuals, and it has 284,000 full-blood individuals. Urban migration As of 2012, 70% of American Indians live in urban areas, up from 45% in 1970 and 8% in 1940. Urban areas with significant Native American populations include Minneapolis, Denver, Phoenix, Tucson, Chicago, Oklahoma City, Houston, New York City, Los Angeles, and Rapid City. Many live in poverty. Racism, unemployment, drugs and gangs are common problems which Indian social service organizations such as the Little Earth housing complex in Minneapolis attempt to address. Note the concentration blue in modern-day in the South West, which was once designated as an before statehood in 1907. According to 2003 estimates, a little over one third of the 2,786,652 Native Americans in the United States live in three states: at 413,382, at 294,137 and at 279,559. In 2010, the U. Census Bureau estimated that about 0. This population is unevenly distributed across the country. Below, all fifty states, as well as the District of Columbia and Puerto Rico, are listed by the proportion of residents citing American Indian or Alaska Native ancestry, based on the. Census Bureau estimated that about less than 1. This population is unevenly distributed across twenty-six states. Below, are the twenty-six states that had at least 0. They are listed by the proportion of residents citing Native Hawaiian or Pacific Islander ancestry, based on 2006 estimates: — 8. Tribal grouping American Indian and Alaska Native alone American Indian and Alaska Native in combination with one or more races American Indian and Alaska Native tribal grouping alone or in any combination One tribal grouping reported More than one tribal grouping reported One tribal grouping reported More than one tribal grouping reported Total 2,423,531 52,425 1,585,396 57,949 4,119,301 57,060 7,917 24,947 6,909 96,833 27,104 4,358 41,389 12,899 85,750 281,069 18,793 390,902 38,769 729,533 11,191 1,365 4,655 993 18,204 20,887 3,014 12,025 2,425 38,351 105,907 2,730 38,635 2,397 149,669 87,349 9,552 50,123 11,750 158,774 7,833 193 1,308 59 9,393 10,120 1,568 6,120 1,568 19,376 2,488 724 3,577 945 7,734 40,223 5,495 21,652 3,940 71,310 9,117 574 2,812 891 13,394 8,304 602 6,866 569 16,341 6,798 79 1,794 42 8,713 45,212 2,318 29,763 3,529 80,822 8,559 1,130 2,119 434 12,242 104,354 1,850 73,042 1,694 180,940 55,913 642 4,934 379 57,868 7,883 258 1,551 148 9,840 269,202 6,789 19,491 2,715 298,197 7,658 1,354 5,491 1,394 15,897 6,432 623 3,174 448 10,677 9,705 1,163 2,315 349 13,532 8,519 999 1,741 234 11,493 15,817 592 8,602 584 25,595 59,533 3,527 9,943 1,082 74,085 11,034 226 3,212 159 14,631 12,431 2,982 9,505 2,513 27,431 7,739 714 3,039 534 12,026 108,272 4,794 35,179 5,115 153,360 17,466 714 1,748 159 20,087 7,309 715 1,944 417 10,385 8,481 561 1,619 190 10,851 15,224 1,245 5,184 759 22,412 7,295 526 1,051 104 8,976 Other specified American Indian tribes 240,521 9,468 100,346 7,323 357,658 American Indian tribe, not specified 109,644 57 86,173 28 195,902 14,520 815 3,218 285 18,838 11,941 832 3,850 355 16,978 45,919 1,418 6,919 505 54,761 14,825 1,059 6,047 434 22,365 Other specified Alaska Native tribes 2,552 435 841 145 3,973 Alaska Native tribe, not specified 6,161 370 2,053 118 8,702 American Indian or Alaska Native tribes, not specified 511,960 X 544,497 X 1,056,457 Main articles: and There are 573 in the United States. These tribes possess the right to form their own governments, to enforce laws both civil and criminal within their lands, to tax, to establish requirements for membership, to license and regulate activities, to zone, and to exclude persons from tribal territories. Limitations on tribal powers of self-government include the same limitations applicable to states; for example, neither tribes nor states have the power to make war, engage in foreign relations, or coin money this includes paper currency. Many Native Americans and advocates of Native American rights point out that the U. Such advocates contend that full respect for Native American sovereignty would require the U. As of 2000, the largest groups in the United States by population were , , , , , , , , and. In 2000, eight of ten Americans with Native American ancestry were of mixed ancestry. It is estimated that by 2100 that figure will rise to nine out of ten. In addition, there are a number of tribes that are , but not by the federal government. The rights and benefits associated with vary from state to state. Some tribal groups have been unable to document the cultural continuity required for federal recognition. The of the San Francisco bay area are pursuing litigation in the federal court system to establish recognition. Many of the smaller eastern tribes, long considered remnants of extinct peoples, have been trying to gain official recognition of their tribal status. Several tribes in Virginia and North Carolina have gained state recognition. Federal recognition confers some benefits, including the right to label arts and crafts as Native American and permission to apply for grants that are specifically reserved for Native Americans. But gaining federal recognition as a tribe is extremely difficult; to be established as a tribal group, members have to submit extensive proof of tribal descent and continuity of the tribe as a culture. Native peoples are concerned about the effects of on or near their lands. In July 2000, the adopted a resolution recommending that the federal and legislative branches of the terminate tribal governments. This was related to their voting to exclude Cherokee Freedmen as members of the tribe unless they had a Cherokee ancestor on the Dawes Rolls, although all Cherokee Freedmen and their descendants had been members since 1866. As of 2004, various Native Americans are wary of attempts by others to gain control of their reservation lands for natural resources, such as and in the West. In the state of , Native Americans face a unique problem. Until 2017 Virginia previously had no federally recognized tribes but the state had recognized eight. This is related historically to the greater impact of disease and warfare on the Virginia Indian populations, as well as their intermarriage with Europeans and Africans. Some people confused the ancestry with culture, but groups of Virginia Indians maintained their cultural continuity. Most of their early reservations were ended under the pressure of early European settlement. Some historians also note the problems of Virginia Indians in establishing documented continuity of identity, due to the work of 1912—1946. As registrar of the state's Bureau of Vital Statistics, he applied his own interpretation of the , enacted in law in 1924 as the state's Racial Integrity Act. This led to the state's destruction of accurate records related to families and communities who identified as Native American as in church records and daily life. He did not allow people to enter their primary identification as Native American in state records. In 2009, the endorsed a bill that would grant federal recognition to tribes in Virginia. To achieve federal recognition and its benefits, tribes must prove continuous existence since 1900. The federal government has maintained this requirement, in part because through participation on councils and committees, federally recognized tribes have been adamant about groups' satisfying the same requirements as they did. Main article: Native American struggles amid to maintain life on the reservation or in larger society have resulted in a variety of health issues, some related to nutrition and health practices. The community suffers a vulnerability to and. It has long been recognized that Native Americans are dying of , alcoholism, , , and other health conditions at shocking rates. Beyond disturbingly high mortality rates, Native Americans also suffer a significantly lower health status and disproportionate rates of disease compared with all other Americans. Chief Plenty Coups and seven Crow prisoners under guard at Crow agency. Montana, 1887 In a study conducted in 2006—2007, non-Native Americans admitted they rarely encountered Native Americans in their daily lives. While sympathetic toward Native Americans and expressing regret over the past, most people had only a vague understanding of the problems facing Native Americans today. For their part, Native Americans told researchers that they believed they continued to face , mistreatment, and in the broader society. Native American mascots in sports A student acting as , the mascot American Indian activists in the United States and Canada have criticized the use of Native American in sports, as perpetuating stereotypes. There has been a steady decline in the number of secondary school and college teams using such names, images, and mascots. Some tribal team names have been approved by the tribe in question, such as the 's approving use of their name for the teams of. Indians' dance in North Carolina. Watercolor by John White, 1585 Native Americans have been depicted by in various ways at different periods. A number of 19th- and 20th-century United States and Canadian painters, often motivated by a desire to document and preserve Native culture, specialized in Native American subjects. Among the most prominent of these were , , , , , , , and. In the 20th century, early portrayals of Native Americans in and roles were first performed by European Americans dressed in mock traditional attire. Examples included The Last of the Mohicans 1920 , Hawkeye and the Last of the Mohicans 1957 , and 1965—67. In later decades, Native American actors such as in television series 1949—57 came to prominence. Roles of Native Americans were limited and not reflective of Native American culture. By the 1970s some Native American film roles began to show more complexity, such as those in 1970 , 1971 , and 1976 , which depicted Native Americans in minor supporting roles. For years, Native people on U. During the years of the series 1959—1973 , no major or secondary Native characters appeared on a consistent basis. The series 1949—1957 , 1955—1963 , and 1959—1963 had Native characters who were essentially aides to the central white characters. This continued in such series as. Like the 1992 remake of and 1993 , Dances with Wolves employed a number of Native American actors, and made an effort to portray Indigenous languages. Terminology differences Further information: Common usage in the United States Native Americans are often known as Indians or American Indians. The term Native American was introduced in the United States in preference to the older term Indian to distinguish the from the people of , and to avoid negative stereotypes associated with the term Indian. Many indigenous Americans, however, prefer the term American Indian and many include the word Indian in their formal title. Criticism of the Native American comes from diverse sources. Census Bureau survey found that more Native Americans in the United States preferred American Indian to Native American. Most American Indians are comfortable with Indian, American Indian, and Native American, and the terms are often used interchangeably. The traditional term is reflected in the name chosen for the , which opened in 2004 on in Gambling industry Main article: has become a leading industry. Some tribes, such as the of , feel that casinos and their proceeds destroy culture from the inside out. These tribes refuse to participate in the gambling industry. Financial services Numerous tribes around the country have entered the financial services market including the , , and the. Because of the challenges involved in starting a financial services business from scratch, many tribes hire outside consultants and vendors to help them launch these businesses and manage the regulatory issues involved. Similar to the tribal sovereignty debates that occurred when tribes first entered the gaming industry, the tribes, states, and federal government are currently in disagreement regarding who possesses the authority to regulate these e-commerce business entities. Crime on reservations Prosecution of serious crime, historically endemic on reservations, was required by the 1885 Major Crimes Act, 18 U. §§1153, 3242, and court decisions to be investigated by the federal government, usually the , and prosecuted by of the in which the reservation lies. A December 13, 2009 article about growing on the estimated that there were 39 gangs with 5,000 members on that reservation alone. As of 2012, a high incidence of rape continued to impact Native American women and Alaskan native women. According to the Department of Justice, 1 in 3 Native women have suffered rape or attempted rape, more than twice the national rate. About 46 percent of Native American women have been raped, beaten, or stalked by an intimate partner, according to a 2010 study by the. According to Professor N. Trauma Trauma among American Indians can be seen through historical and intergenerational trauma and can be directly related the abuse of alcohol and substances among American Indian populations. Examples of historical trauma can be seen through the of 1890, where over 200 unarmed Lakota were killed, and the of 1887, when American Indians lost four-fifths of their land. Impacts of intergenerational trauma American Indian youth have higher rates of substance and alcohol abuse deaths than the general population. Many American Indians can trace the beginning of their substance and alcohol abuse to a traumatic event related to their offender's own substance abuse. A person's substance abuse can be described as a defense mechanism against the user's emotions and trauma. For American Indians alcoholism is a symptom of trauma passed from generation to generation and influenced by oppressive behaviors and policies by the dominant Euro-American society. Shame among American Indians can be attributed to the hundreds of years of discrimination. Solutions American Indians do not view mind, body, and soul as separate from each other or themselves as the Western worldview does. American Indians believe all is connected and related to each other. American Indian psychologists have been asked to use mental health practices that cultivate American Indian values rather than using conventional ways of counseling. The Wellbriety Movement creates a space for American Indians to learn how to reconnect with their culture by using culturally specific principles to become and remain sober. Some examples are burning sage, cedar, and sweetgrass as a means to cleanse physical and spiritual spaces, verbally saying prayers and singing in one's own tribal language, and participating in tribal drum groups and ceremonies as part of meetings and gatherings. Three Native American women in Warm Springs Indian Reservation, Wasco County, Oregon. Early European American scholars described the Native Americans as having a society dominated by. Early tribes made stone tools from around 10,000 years ago; as the age of dawned, newer technologies were used and more effective weapons produced. Prior to contact with Europeans, most tribes used similar weaponry. The most common implements were the , the , and the. Quality, material, and design varied widely. Large mammals like and were largely extinct by around 8000 BCE. Native Americans switched to hunting other large game, such as. The Great Plains tribes were still hunting the bison when they first encountered the Europeans. The Spanish reintroduction of the horse to North America in the 17th century and Native Americans' learning to use them greatly altered the Native Americans' culture, including changing the way in which they hunted large game. Horses became such a valuable, central element of Native lives that they were counted as a measure of wealth. Ethno-linguistic classification The Cherokee language taught to preschoolers as a , at Kituwah Academy To counteract a shift to English, some Native American tribes have initiated language immersion schools for children, where a native Indian language is the medium of instruction. For example, the initiated a 10-year language preservation plan that involved raising new fluent speakers of the from childhood on up through school immersion programs as well as a collaborative community effort to continue to use the language at home. This plan was part of an ambitious goal that, in 50 years, will result in 80% or more of the Cherokee people being fluent in the language. There is also a Cherokee language immersion school in Tahlequah, Oklahoma, that educates students from pre-school through eighth grade. Because Oklahoma's official language is English, Cherokee immersion students are hindered when taking state-mandated tests because they have little competence in English. The Department of Education of Oklahoma said that in 2012 state tests: 11% of the school's sixth-graders showed proficiency in math, and 25% showed proficiency in reading; 31% of the seventh-graders showed proficiency in math, and 87% showed proficiency in reading; 50% of the eighth-graders showed proficiency in math, and 78% showed proficiency in reading. The Oklahoma Department of Education listed the charter school as a Targeted Intervention school, meaning the school was identified as a low-performing school but has not so that it was a Priority School. Ultimately, the school made a C, or a 2. The report card shows the school getting an F in mathematics achievement and mathematics growth, a C in social studies achievement, a D in reading achievement, and an A in reading growth and student attendance. Eighth graders who graduate from the Tahlequah immersion school are fluent speakers of the language, and they usually go on to attend where classes are taught in both English and Cherokee. Further information: , , , , , and The , living around the and extending east and north, used strings or belts called that served a dual function: the knots and beaded designs mnemonically chronicled tribal stories and legends, and further served as a medium of exchange and a unit of measure. The keepers of the articles were seen as tribal dignitaries. Sculpture was not highly developed, but carved stone and wood fetishes were made for religious use. Superior weaving, embroidered decorations, and rich dyes characterized the textile arts. Both turquoise and shell jewelry were created, as were high-quality pottery and formalized pictorial arts. The colors—made from sand, charcoal, cornmeal, and pollen—depicted specific spirits. These vivid, intricate, and colorful sand creations were erased at the end of the ceremony. The Native American arts and crafts industry brings in more than a billion in gross sales annually. Agriculture baby waits on a while parents tend rice crops , 1940. An early crop the Native Americans grew was. Other early crops included , , , , , , and. Agriculture in the southwest started around 4,000 years ago when traders brought cultigens from Mexico. Due to the varying climate, some ingenuity was needed for agriculture to be successful. The climate in the southwest ranged from cool, moist mountains regions, to dry, sandy soil in the desert. Some innovations of the time included to bring water into the dry regions and the selection of seed based on the traits of the growing plants that bore them. In the southwest, they grew beans that were self-supported, much like the way they are grown today. The most important crop the Native Americans raised was. It was first started in and spread north. About 2,000 years ago it reached eastern America. This crop was important to the Native Americans because it was part of their everyday diet; it could be stored in underground pits during the winter, and no part of it was wasted. The husk was made into art crafts, and the cob was used as fuel for fires. By 800 CE the Native Americans had established three main crops—beans, squash, and corn—called the. The agriculture gender roles of the Native Americans varied from region to region. In the southwest area, men prepared the soil with. The women were in charge of planting, weeding, and harvesting the crops. In most other regions, the women were in charge of doing everything, including clearing the land. Clearing the land was an immense chore since the Native Americans rotated fields frequently. There is a tradition that showed the Pilgrims in New England how to put fish in fields to act like a fertilizer, but the truth of this story is debated. Native Americans did plant beans next to corn; the beans would replace the which the corn took from the ground, as well as using corn stalks for support for climbing. Native Americans used controlled fires to burn weeds and clear fields; this would put nutrients back into the ground. If this did not work, they would simply abandon the field to let it be fallow, and find a new spot for cultivation. Europeans in the eastern part of the continent observed that Native Americans cleared large areas for cropland. Their fields in New England sometimes covered hundreds of acres. Colonists in Virginia noted thousands of acres under cultivation by Native Americans. Native Americans commonly used tools such as the hoe, , and. The hoe was the main tool used to till the land and prepare it for planting; then it was used for weeding. The first versions were made out of wood and stone. When the settlers brought iron, Native Americans switched to iron hoes and hatchets. The dibber was a digging stick, used to plant the seed. Once the plants were harvested, women prepared the produce for eating. They used the maul to grind the corn into mash. It was cooked and eaten that way or baked as corn bread. Religion Baptism of Pocahontas was painted in 1840. John Gadsby Chapman depicts , wearing white, being baptized Rebecca by Anglican minister Alexander Whiteaker left in Jamestown, Virginia; this event is believed to have taken place either in 1613 or 1614. Traditional Native American ceremonies are still practiced by many tribes and bands, and the older theological belief systems are still held by many of the native people. Traditional practices of some tribes include the use of sacred herbs such as tobacco, or. Many Plains tribes have ceremonies, though the specifics of the ceremony vary among tribes. Fasting, singing and prayer in the ancient languages of their people, and sometimes are also common. Another significant religious body among Native peoples is known as the. It is a church incorporating elements of Native spiritual practice from a number of different tribes as well as symbolic elements from. Its main rite is the ceremony. Prior to 1890, traditional religious beliefs included. In the American Southwest, especially , a syncretism between the brought by Spanish missionaries and the native religion is common; the religious drums, chants, and dances of the are regularly part of at 's. Native American-Catholic syncretism is also found elsewhere in the United States. The Title 50 Part 22 of the Code of Federal Regulations stipulates that only individuals of certifiable Native American ancestry enrolled in a federally recognized tribe are legally authorized to obtain feathers for religious or spiritual use. The law does not allow Native Americans to give eagle feathers to non-Native Americans. Gender roles are differentiated in many Native American tribes. Many Natives have historically defied colonial expectations of sexuality and gender, and continue to do so in contemporary life. Whether a particular tribe is predominantly or , often both sexes have some degree of decision-making power within the tribe. Many Nations, such as the Five Nations and the Southeast Muskogean tribes, have matrilineal or systems, in which property and hereditary leadership are controlled by and passed through the maternal lines. In these Nations, the children are considered to belong to the mother's clan. In culture, women own the family property. When traditional young women marry, their husbands may join them in their mother's household. Matrilineal structures enable young women to have assistance in childbirth and rearing, and protect them in case of conflicts between the couple. If a couple separates or the man dies, the woman has her family to assist her. In matrilineal cultures the mother's brothers are usually the leading male figures in her children's lives; fathers have no standing in their wife and children's clan, as they still belong to their own mother's clan. Hereditary clan chief positions pass through the mother's line and chiefs have historically been selected on recommendation of women elders, who also could disapprove of a chief. In the tribes, such as the , , , and , hereditary leadership passes through the male line, and children are considered to belong to the father and his. In patrilineal tribes, if a woman marries a non-Native, she is no longer considered part of the tribe, and her children are considered to share the ethnicity and culture of their father. In patriarchal tribes, gender roles tend to be rigid. Men have historically hunted, traded and made war while, as life-givers, women have primary responsibility for the survival and welfare of the families and future of the tribe. Women usually gather and cultivate plants, use plants and herbs to treat illnesses, care for the young and the elderly, make all the clothing and instruments, and process and cure meat and skins from the game. Some mothers use to carry an infant while working or traveling. In matriarchal and egalitarian nations, the gender roles are usually not so clear-cut, and are even less so in the modern era. At least several dozen tribes allowed to sisters, with procedural and economic limits. Though fighting in war has mostly been left to the boys and men, occasionally women have fought as well - both in battles and in defense of the home - especially if the tribe was severely threatened. Sports Ball players from the and tribe as painted by in the 1830s Team sports Native American ball sports, sometimes referred to as , stickball, or baggataway, were often used to settle disputes, rather than going to war, as a civil way to settle potential conflict. There are three basic versions, classified as Great Lakes, Iroquoian, and Southern. The game is played with one or two rackets or sticks and one ball. The object of the game is to land the ball in the opposing team's goal either a single post or net to score and to prevent the opposing team from scoring on your goal. The game involves as few as 20 or as many as 300 players with no height or weight restrictions and no protective gear. The goals could be from around 200 feet 61 m apart to about 2 miles 3. Women's basketball Currently in the WNBA, there are 2 women who are of Native ancestry and enrolled in federally recognized tribes. At the time she was the highest-drafted Native American player in the history of the WNBA. During the 2013—14 off-season, she played for Chevakata Vologda in the Russian Premier League. In 2015, she was picked up on waivers by the Seattle Storm , , is an American professional basketball player. She was an All-American college player at the University of Louisville and a first round draft pick of the WNBA's Atlanta Dream. She also earned recognition as the 2014 WNBA All-Star Game Most Valuable Player on July 19, 2014, in Phoenix, Arizona. The disk was thrown down a 200-foot 61 m corridor so that it could roll past the players at great speed. The disk would roll down the corridor, and players would throw wooden shafts at the moving disk. The object of the game was to strike the disk or prevent your opponents from hitting it. Olympics , a Native American, was an all-round athlete playing football and baseball in the early 20th century. Future President injured his knee while trying to tackle the young Thorpe. My memory goes back to Jim Thorpe. He never practiced in his life, and he could do anything better than any other football player I ever saw. He could long jump 23 ft 6 in and high-jump 6 ft 5 in. He could 11 feet 3. Thorpe entered the U. Olympic trials for the pentathlon and the decathlon. He ran for the Carlisle Indian School where he was a teammate of Jim Thorpe. His silver medal in 1912 remained the best U. Tewanima also competed at the 1908 Olympics, where he finished in ninth place in the marathon. He qualified for the 1940 Olympic Games in Helsinki, Finland, but the games were canceled due to the outbreak of World War II. He was the only American ever to win the Olympic gold in this event. An unknown before the Olympics, Mills finished second in the U. Six years later at the 1970 World Championships, Kidd won the gold medal in the event and took the bronze medal in the slalom. Music and art Jake Fragua, from Traditional Native American music is almost entirely , but there are notable exceptions. The tuning of modern flutes is typically. Performers with Native American parentage have occasionally appeared in American popular music such as , , , , , , members are also of Mexican descent , and. Some, such as , have used music to comment on life in Native America. Other musicians such as , and integrate traditional sounds with modern sounds in instrumental recordings, whereas the music by artist is derived from ancestral heritage as well as nature. A variety of small and medium-sized recording companies offer an abundance of recent music by Native American performers young and old, ranging from pow-wow drum music to hard-driving rock-and-roll and rap. In the International world of ballet dancing was considered America's first major , and was the first person of Native American descent to hold the rank. The most widely practiced public musical form among Native Americans in the United States is that of the. At pow-wows, such as the annual in , members of drum groups sit in a circle around a large drum. Drum groups play in unison while they sing in a native language and dancers in colorful regalia dance clockwise around the drum groups in the center. Familiar pow-wow songs include honor songs, intertribal songs, crow-hops, sneak-up songs, grass-dances, two-steps, welcome songs, going-home songs, and war songs. Most indigenous communities in the United States also maintain traditional songs and ceremonies, some of which are shared and practiced exclusively within the community. Native American art comprises a major category in the world art collection. Native American contributions include , , , , , , and. The integrity of certain Native American artworks is protected by the , that prohibits representation of art as Native American when it is not the product of an enrolled Native American artist. Traditional economy The , or , prepared and buried large amounts of dried meat and fish. Farmers in the Eastern Woodlands tended fields of maize with hoes and digging sticks, while their neighbors in the Southeast grew tobacco as well as food crops. On the Plains, some tribes engaged in agriculture but also planned buffalo hunts in which herds were driven over bluffs. Dwellers of the Southwest deserts hunted small animals and gathered acorns to grind into flour with which they baked wafer-thin bread on top of heated stones. Some groups on the region's mesas developed irrigation techniques, and filled storehouses with grain as protection against the area's frequent. In the early years, as these native peoples encountered European explorers and settlers and engaged in trade, they exchanged food, crafts, and furs for blankets, iron and steel implements, horses, trinkets, firearms, and alcoholic beverages. Contemporary barriers to economic development Native Americans and a whale, pictured in 1910 by. The photo's title is The King of the Seas in the Hands of the Makahs. Today, other than tribes successfully running casinos, many tribes struggle, as they are often located on reservations isolated from the main economic centers of the country. According to the , an estimated 400,000 Native Americans reside on reservation land. While some tribes have had success with gaming, only 40% of the 562 federally recognized tribes operate. According to a 2007 survey by the , only 1% of Native Americans own and operate a business. Social statistics highlight the challenges faced by Native American communities: highest teen suicide rate of all minorities at 18. The barriers to on Native American reservations have been identified by and of the at , in their report: What Can Tribes Do? Consequently, experiential entrepreneurship education needs to be embedded into school curricula and after-school and other community activities. She identified with the Cherokee culture in which she was raised. One case is that of , a European from , who was shipwrecked along the , and fathered three children with a noblewoman. Another is the case of and his mistress , who gave birth to another of the first multi-racial people in the Americas. Assimilation The 1725 return of an Osage bride from a trip to ,. The Osage woman was married to a French soldier. European impact was immediate, widespread, and profound already during the early years of colonization and nationhood. Early contact was often charged with tension and emotion, but also had moments of friendship, cooperation, and intimacy. Marriages took place in English, Spanish, and French colonies between Native Americans and Europeans. Given the preponderance of men among the colonists in the early years, generally European men married American Indian women. Five Indians and a Captive, painted by , 1855 There was fear on both sides, as the different peoples realized how different their societies were. They were suspicious of cultures which they did not understand. The Native American author, Andrew J. Blackbird, wrote in his History of the and Indians of Michigan 1897 , that white settlers introduced some immoralities into Native American tribes. Many Indians suffered because the Europeans introduced alcohol and the whiskey trade resulted in alcoholism among the people, who were. Blackbird wrote: The Ottawas and Chippewas were quite virtuous in their primitive state, as there were no illegitimate children reported in our old traditions. But very lately this evil came to exist among the Ottawas-so lately that the second case among the Ottawas of 'Arbor Croche' is yet living in 1897. And from that time this evil came to be quite frequent, for immorality has been introduced among these people by evil white persons who bring their vices into the tribes. The government used a variety of strategies to achieve these goals; many treaties required Native Americans to become farmers in order to keep their land. Government officials often did not translate the documents which Native Americans were forced to sign, and native chiefs often had little or no idea what they were signing. In the early 19th century, the Tecumseh and blonde hair, blue-eyed Rebbecca Galloway had an interracial affair. In the late 19th century, three European-American middle-class women teachers at married Native American men whom they had met as students. As European-American women started working independently at missions and Indian schools in the western states, there were more opportunities for their meeting and developing relationships with Native American men. For instance, , a man of European and descent whose father sent both his sons to , got his medical degree at and returned to the West to practice. He married , whom he met in South Dakota. He was the grandson of , a military officer from Maine, and a chief's daughter. Goodale was a young European-American teacher from Massachusetts and a reformer, who was appointed as the U. They had six children together. European enslavement Main article: When Europeans arrived as in North America, Native Americans changed their practice of dramatically. Native Americans began selling war captives to Europeans rather than integrating them into their own societies as they had done before. The British settlers, especially those in the southern colonies, purchased or captured Native Americans to use as forced labor in cultivating tobacco, rice, and indigo. Accurate records of the numbers enslaved do not exist. Scholars estimate tens of thousands of Native Americans may have been enslaved by the Europeans, being sold by Native Americans themselves. Slaves became a caste of people who were foreign to the English Native Americans, Africans and their descendants and non-Christians. The Virginia General Assembly defined some terms of slavery in 1705: All servants imported and brought into the Country... All Negro, mulatto and Indian slaves within this dominion... If any slave resists his master... It gave rise to a series of devastating wars among the tribes, including the. The of the early 18th century, combined with the increasing importation of African slaves, effectively ended the Native American slave trade by 1750. Colonists found that Native American slaves could easily escape, as they knew the country. The wars cost the lives of numerous colonial slave traders and disrupted their early societies. The remaining Native American groups banded together to face the Europeans from a position of strength. Many surviving Native American peoples of the southeast strengthened their loose coalitions of language groups and joined confederacies such as the , the , and the for protection. Native American women were at risk for rape whether they were enslaved or not; during the early colonial years, settlers were disproportionately male. They turned to Native women for sexual relationships. Both Native American and African enslaved women suffered rape and sexual harassment by male slaveholders and other white men. Native American slavery Further information: and Traditions of Native American slavery The majority of Native American tribes did practice some form of slavery before the European introduction of African slavery into North America, but none exploited slave labor on a large scale. Most Native American tribes did not barter captives in the pre-colonial era, although they sometimes exchanged enslaved individuals with other tribes in peace gestures or in exchange for their own members. The conditions of enslaved Native Americans varied among the tribes. In many cases, young enslaved captives were adopted into the tribes to replace warriors killed during warfare or by disease. Other tribes practiced debt slavery or imposed slavery on tribal members who had committed crimes, but this status was only temporary as the enslaved worked off their obligations to the tribal society. Other Native American groups, such as those of the , tended to own slaves, with up to a quarter of some tribal populations consisting of slaves. They were typically captured by raids on enemy tribes, or purchased on intertribal slave markets. Slaves would often be killed in potlatches, to signify the owners' contempt for property. Slave raids, especially among the of and , would often go far off from the points of origin, with some slave raids going as far south as. Slavery was a hereditary position—children of slaves were fated to be slaves themselves. Native American and African relations , 1890. Sometimes Native Americans resented the presence of African Americans. To gain favor with Europeans, the Cherokee exhibited the strongest color prejudice of all Native Americans. In addition, in 1758 the governor of South Carolina James Glen wrote: it has always been the policy of this government to create an aversion in them Indians to Negroes. Europeans considered both races inferior and made efforts to make both Native Americans and Africans enemies. Native Americans were rewarded if they returned escaped slaves, and African Americans were rewarded for fighting in the late 19th-century. They worked together, lived together in communal quarters, produced collective recipes for food, shared herbal remedies, myths and legends, and in the end they intermarried. In the 18th century, many Native American women married freed or African men due to a decrease in the population of men in Native American villages. Records show that many Native American women bought African men but, unknown to the European sellers, the women freed and married the men into their tribe. When African men married or had children by a Native American woman, their children were born free, because the mother was free according to the principle of , which the colonists incorporated into law. European colonists often required the return of runaway slaves to be included as a provision in treaties with American Indians. In 1726, the British Governor of New York exacted a promise from the Iroquois to return all runaway slaves who had joined up with them. In the mid-1760s, the government requested the and to return runaway slaves, but there was no record of slaves having been returned. Colonists placed ads about runaway slaves. While numerous tribes used captive enemies as servants and slaves, they also often adopted younger captives into their tribes to replace members who had died. In the Southeast, a few Native American tribes began to adopt a slavery system similar to that of the American colonists, buying African American slaves, especially the , , and. Though less than 3% of Native Americans owned slaves, divisions grew among the Native Americans over slavery. Among the Cherokee, records show that slave holders in the tribe were largely the children of European men that had shown their children the economics of slavery. As European colonists took slaves into frontier areas, there were more opportunities for relationships between African and Native American peoples. Based on the work of , a series on African Americans explained that while most African Americans are racially mixed, it is relatively rare that they have Native American ancestry. Some critics thought the PBS series did not sufficiently explain the limitations of DNA testing for assessment of heritage. Another study suggests that relatively few Native Americans have African-American heritage. DNA testing has limitations and should not be depended on by individuals to answer all their questions about heritage. So far, such testing cannot distinguish among the many distinct Native American tribes. No tribes accept DNA testing to satisfy their differing qualifications for membership, usually based on documented blood quantum or descent from ancestor s listed on the. Native American adoption of African slavery Further information: Native Americans interacted with enslaved Africans and African Americans on many levels. Over time all the cultures interacted. Native Americans began slowly to adopt white culture. Native Americans in the South shared some experiences with Africans, especially during the period, primarily in the 17th century, when both were enslaved. The colonists along the Atlantic Coast had begun enslaving Native Americans to ensure a source of labor. At one time the slave trade was so extensive that it caused increasing tensions with the various tribes, as well as the. Based in New York and Pennsylvania, they had threatened to attack colonists on behalf of the related before they migrated out of the South in the early 1700s. In the 1790s, was assigned as the U. He advised the tribes to take up slaveholding to aid them in European-style farming and plantations. He thought their traditional form of slavery, which had looser conditions, was less efficient than. In the 19th century, some members of these tribes who were more closely associated with settlers, began to purchase African-American slaves for workers. They adopted some European-American ways to benefit their people. From the late 1700s to the 1860s, the were involved in the institution of African slavery as. For example, Cherokee leader owned more than 100 slaves. The proportion of families who owned slaves did not exceed ten percent, and was comparable to the percentage among white families across the South, where a slaveholding elite owned most of the laborers. The writer William Loren Katz contends that Native Americans treated their slaves better than did the typical white American in the. Though less than 3% of Native Americans owned slaves, bondage created destructive cleavages among those who were slaveholders. Among the Five Civilized Tribes, mixed-race slaveholders were generally part of an elite hierarchy, often based on their mothers' clan status, as the societies had systems. As did Benjamin Hawkins, European fur traders and colonial officials tended to marry high-status women, in strategic alliances seen to benefit both sides. The Choctaw, Creek and Cherokee believed they benefited from stronger alliances with the traders and their societies. The historian Greg O'Brien calls them the Creole generation to show that they were part of a changing society. Proposals for heightened the tensions of cultural changes, due to the increase in the number of Native Americans in the South. Full bloods, who tended to live in areas less affected by colonial encroachment, generally worked to maintain traditional ways, including control of communal lands. While the traditional members often resented the sale of tribal lands to Anglo-Americans, by the 1830s they agreed it was not possible to go to war with the colonists on this issue. In the 2010 Census, nearly 3 million people indicated that their race was Native American including Alaska Native. Across the US, numerous individuals cultivate an as Native American, sometimes through or. Many tribes, especially those in the , are primarily made up of individuals with an unambiguous , despite being predominantly of European ancestry. Historically, numerous Native Americans , e. In many cases, this process occurred through of children sent off to far from their families. Those who could had the advantage of Today, after generations of through , many Native Americans are visually indistinguishable from , unlike , who may in fact have little or no non-indigenous ancestry. Native Americans are more likely than any other racial group to practice , resulting in an ever-declining proportion of indigenous blood among those who claim a Native American identity. Some tribes will even resort to unable to provide , usually through a. Disenrollment has become a contentious issue in. Admixture and genetics Members of the Creek Muscogee Nation in around 1877; they include men with some European and African ancestry. Intertribal mixing was common among many Native American tribes prior to European contact, as they would adopt captives taken in warfare. Individuals often had ancestry from more than one tribe, particularly after tribes lost so many members from disease in the colonial era and after. Bands or entire tribes occasionally split or merged to form more viable groups in reaction to the pressures of climate, disease and warfare. A number of tribes traditionally adopted into their group to replace members who had been captured or killed in battle. Such captives were from rival tribes and later were taken from raids on European settlements. Some tribes also sheltered or adopted white traders and runaway slaves, and others owned slaves of their own. Tribes with long trading histories with Europeans show a higher rate of European admixture, reflecting years of intermarriage between Native American women and European men, often seen as advantageous to both sides. A number of paths to genetic and ethnic diversity among Native Americans have occurred. In recent years, genetic genealogists have been able to determine the proportion of Native American ancestry carried by the African-American population. The literary and history scholar , had experts on his TV programs who discussed African-American ancestry. They stated that 5% of African Americans have at least 12. A greater percentage could have a smaller proportion of Indian ancestry, but their conclusions show that popular estimates of Native American admixture may have been too high. DNA testing is not sufficient to qualify a person for specific tribal membership, as it cannot distinguish among Native American tribes. Native American identity has historically been based on culture, not just biology, as many American Indian peoples adopted captives from their enemies and assimilated them into their tribes. While they occur more frequently among Native Americans, they are also found in people in other parts of the world. Tribal membership To receive tribal services, a Native American must be a certified or enrolled member of a federally recognized tribal organization. Each tribal government makes its own rules for eligibility of citizens or tribal members. But, the federal government has its own standards related to who qualifies for services available to certified Native Americans. For instance, federal scholarships for Native Americans require the student both to be enrolled in a federally recognized tribe and to be of at least one-quarter Native American descent equivalent to one grandparent , attested to by a CDIB card issued by the federal government. Some tribes have begun requiring of individuals' applying for membership, but this is usually related to an individual's proving parentage or direct descent from a certified member. Requirements for tribal membership vary widely by tribe. The Cherokee require documented direct genealogical descent from a Native American listed on the early 1906. Tribal rules regarding recognition of members who have heritage from multiple tribes are equally diverse and complex. Tribal membership conflicts have led to a number of legal disputes, court cases, and the formation of activist groups. One example of this are the. Today, they include descendants of African Americans once enslaved by the Cherokees, who were granted, by federal treaty, citizenship in the as freedmen after the. The , in the early 1980s, passed a law to require that all members must prove descent from a Cherokee Native American not Cherokee Freedmen listed on the Dawes Rolls, resulting in the exclusion of some individuals and families who had been active in Cherokee culture for years. Increased self-identification Since the census of 2000, people may identify as being of more than one race. Since the 1960s, the number of people claiming Native American ancestry has grown significantly and by the 2000 census, the number had more than doubled. The author writes: The reaction from lifelong Indians runs the gamut. It is easy to find Native Americans who denounce many of these new Indians as members of the wannabe tribe. But it is also easy to find Indians like Clem Iron Wing, an elder among the , who sees this flood of new ethnic claims as magnificent, a surge of Indians 'trying to come home. The journalist Mary Annette Pember notes that identifying with Native American culture may be a result of a person's increased interest in , the romanticization of the lifestyle, and a family tradition of Native American ancestors in the distant past. There are different issues if a person wants to pursue enrollment as a member of a tribe. Different tribes have different requirements for tribal membership; in some cases persons are reluctant to enroll, seeing it as a method of control initiated by the federal government; and there are individuals who are 100% Native American but, because of their mixed tribal heritage, do not qualify to belong to any individual tribe. Pember concludes: The subjects of genuine American Indian blood, cultural connection and recognition by the community are extremely contentious issues, hotly debated throughout Indian country and beyond. The whole situation, some say, is ripe for misinterpretation, confusion and, ultimately, exploitation. Neither , and thus Y-DNA and mtDNA change only by chance mutation at each generation with no intermixture between parents' genetic material. Autosomal DNA is generally used to measure the average continent-of-ancestry in the entire and related. The genetic pattern indicates Indigenous Americans experienced two very distinctive genetic episodes; first with the initial-peopling of the Americas, and secondly with. The former is the determinant factor for the number of lineages, mutations and founding present in today's Indigenous Amerindian. Human settlement of the New World occurred in stages from the , with an initial 15,000 to 20,000-year layover on for the small. 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